Asia Pacific Food Industry

Transparent timber supply chains are crucial for sustainable forest management and biodiversity protection. However, international timber flows remain susceptible to illegal logging, fraud, and information asymmetries. 

This environment is complicated by the diverse array of actors involved, varying cross-border regulatory systems, and the inherently fragmented structure of global supply chains. 

To address these challenges, the European Union Deforestation Regulation (EUDR, Regulation (EU) 2023/1115) enforces strict due diligence and traceability mandates. These mandated disclosures include geolocated harvest plots, verifiable links to product origins, and robust evidence of compliance. 

Based on the officially adopted implementation schedule, the EUDR requirements apply from 30 December 2026 for large operators, whereas micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are granted an extended timeline until 30 June 2027.

Various identification and documentation approaches are already in use in forestry and timber logistics, including paint and hammer marks, barcodes, geolocation-based documentation, genetic analysis, RFID tagging, and laboratory verification. 

These approaches address some aspects of traceability, but there are further limitations, especially in terms of interoperability between organisations, variable data quality, and variations in digital maturity within the operational forest environment. Additionally, there are concerns about data privacy and the protection of trade secrets.

In this context, the proposal of blockchain technology as the basis for traceability is driven by the opportunity for cross-party verification across the entire timber supply chain. 

However, it is important to understand that blockchain technology does not tackle issues related to data provenance or governance gaps. 

The system's effectiveness depends on the design decisions made. These include the events recorded, the data excluded from the blockchain, the actors validating entries, and how the system integrates with existing certification systems (e.g., PEFC and FSC) and GIS/IoT-enabled data collection. 

Without standardised data and coordinated governance, blockchain risks making things more complex without achieving reliable improvements in transparency.

This study analyses the potential of blockchain technology to add value to timber supply chains within the framework of European regulations, examining the technical, organisational, and legal requirements necessary for its implementation in the forestry sector. 

To address these gaps and systematically incorporate insights from foresters and industry stakeholders, this study targets three interconnected research questions:

•RQ1: What are the operational potentials and socio-technical barriers of implementing blockchain within timber supply chains under realistic forestry conditions?

•RQ2: How can blockchain systematically interface with existing certification schemes and legal frameworks (specifically the EUDR) to ensure data integrity and mitigate the physical-digital oracle problem?

•RQ3: What socio-economic and governance prerequisites are required to ensure equitable and widespread technology adoption among fragmented forestry stakeholders?

The focus of this work is on the operational feasibility of blockchain in forestry and its suitability for the timber industry. Rather than viewing blockchain as a standalone, intrinsic solution, it is conceptualised as one component within a broader socio-technical system that encompasses physical identification technologies, standardised data schemas, governance rules, and regulatory integration. 

The core contribution consists of clarifying the conditions under which blockchain can credibly improve timber supply chain transparency under the EUDR, and identifying the practical requirements enabling an interoperable, practice-oriented implementation.

Multi-Method Analysis & Ethical Data Governance

This study adopts a sequential mixed-methods research design to evaluate the operational feasibility, constraints, and governance prerequisites of blockchain technology for timber traceability under the EUDR. 

To ensure a robust, triangulated analysis, quantitative trends derived from a broad industry-wide online survey were utilised to inform, contextualise, and refine the focus areas of a subsequent transdisciplinary, consensus-building expert workshop. 

This overarching empirical framework was structurally anchored by 41 in-depth, guideline-based expert interviews conducted across German-speaking Europe. 

By integrating qualitative depth with quantitative validation, this multi-stage approach systematically balances subjective stakeholder perspectives against broader industry indicators to derive scalable policy and technological recommendations.

Building upon the conceptual foundation of a prior systematic literature review, this study employs an integrated multi-phase empirical framework. Each component was developed with a distinct functional objective to achieve comprehensive methodological triangulation. 

The four phases comprised: 

(1) literature-based synthesis and secondary research, which established the core theoretical framework, mapped current technological capabilities, and identified critical research gaps; 

(2) guideline-based expert interviews, designed to capture granular operational insights from key supply chain actors and identify localised practical hurdles; 

(3) an anonymised online survey to validate preliminary findings across a larger sample size and evaluate broader industry-wide consensus; 

and (4) a transdisciplinary expert workshop enabling direct dialogue between cross-sectoral stakeholders and facilitating the co-creation of governance requirements.

To systematically synthesise these components, the outputs of each phase served as direct analytical inputs for the next. Data collection and processing were governed by strict ethical standards and data ownership principles. 

No personal identifiers beyond necessary professional and organisational classifications were processed. All qualitative interactions were handled to preserve participant anonymity, informed consent was formally obtained from all respondents prior to data collection, and all data management protocols strictly complied with the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

Literature-Based Synthesis & Desk Research

A targeted literature review and secondary desk research were executed to systematically map contemporary scientific and grey literature concerning blockchain architectures, supply chain traceability, and digital forestry ecosystems. 

The screening process synthesised established domain reviews to accomplish three primary goals: 

(i) characterise systemic challenges and architectural design choices in blockchain-supported tracking, 

(ii) define a baseline catalogue of socio-technical prerequisites, 

and (iii) establish empirical core themes for subsequent field research. The preliminary structural tools were designed through a multi-stage process based on these synthesis insights. 

Guideline items and survey prompts were drafted and iteratively refined within the research consortium using the digital collaboration platform Miro. To ensure empirical standardisation and enable future replication, these items were structured into formalised instruments prior to deployment.

A purposive sampling approach was utilised to establish a candidate pool of 108 high-level experts and pivotal institutional actors within the Central European timber value chain. 

Candidates were selected from the established professional networks and stakeholder databases of the participating research partners based on their direct operational engagement with timber logistics, certification, or EUDR compliance strategies. 

Out of this initial cohort, 41 experts self-selected to participate in the qualitative interview phase, ensuring a highly motivated sample with specialised technical and regulatory authority. 

This sample size was deemed methodologically sufficient as data saturation (thematic redundancy) was demonstrably achieved within the final iterations.

The interview cohort comprised 41 professionals stratified across seven distinct stakeholder categories to capture a comprehensive cross-section of the industry: forest owners (n=8), foresters (n=5), forest operating companies (n=2), timber logistics providers (n=2), timber processing and sawmill companies (n=6), forest service firms (n=10), and representatives from industry associations, research organisations, or scientific institutions (n=7).

To maximise methodological transparency, data collection was standardised across a team of five trained researchers. The semi-structured interviews were conducted remotely via secure web-conferencing software or telephone, with selected sessions carried out in person. 

All sessions were audio-recorded and subsequently transcribed manually to ensure verbatim data precision. 

The total dataset encompassed interview durations ranging from 11 minutes to 1 hour and 39 minutes, yielding a mean interview length of 43 minutes. 

To protect participant privacy, individual demographic identifiers such as exact age or specific corporate identities were fully omitted from the transcripts.

The qualitative text corpus was analysed using Structured Qualitative Content Analysis. This systematic, rule-guided framework combines deductive, theory-driven main categories derived from the literature with inductive, data-driven subcategories that emerged directly from the text.

To minimise individual researcher bias and ensure analytical reliability, three independent researchers executed the multi-stage coding process; any coding discrepancies or boundary ambiguities were iteratively resolved through collaborative consensus-building discussions until a final, unified categorisation was achieved. 

Coded segments were compiled into an aggregated coding dictionary and qualitatively ranked across five core thematic areas, structurally aligned with the constructs of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM): (a) tracking mechanism and automated data capture, (b) economic and operational incentives, (c) legal and regulatory considerations, (d) forest certification integration, and (e) macro-level digital readiness.

Online Survey & Expert Workshop

To scale and statistically validate the qualitative insights gathered from the expert interviews, a quantitative online survey was deployed between 19 September and 23 October 2023. 

The survey items were designed to map onto the TAM constructs, operationalising "perceived usefulness" via regulatory compliance capabilities and "perceived ease of use" via technological integration barriers. 

The survey was hosted securely on LimeSurvey and utilised diversified item formats, including semantic differentials, Likert scales, ordinal rankings, and open-ended text fields.

Targeted recruitment utilised a multi-channel outreach strategy: the survey was formally promoted at two primary scientific venues—the Forstwissenschaftliche Tagung (FowiTa 2023) in Dresden, Germany, and the International Symposium on Forest Mechanisation (FORMEC 2023) in Florence, Italy. 

This was supplemented by digital dissemination via institutional websites, professional social media channels, and 559 direct, targeted email invitations sent to industry stakeholders.

A total of 100 responses were logged, from which 69 fully completed questionnaires were secured. 

In alignment with established statistical protocols for exploratory survey research, partially completed responses were retained and analysed up to the specific point of respondent dropout.

To prevent distortion, statistical analyses utilised pairwise deletion on an item-by-item basis for missing values, and no artificial data imputations were performed. Within the total sample, forest owners constituted the largest participating group (22%; n=22), followed closely by foresters (20%; n=20). 

The remaining sample consisted of research and academic staff (15%; n=15), sawmill industry representatives (11%; n=11), political delegates and association officers (8%; n=8), logging contractors (6%; n=6), timber logistics operators (3%; n=3), unclassified corporate entities (7%; n=7), and miscellaneous stakeholders (8%; n=8). 

Demographic age distribution was stratified as follows: under 30 years (14%; n=14), 30–49 years (41%; n=41), 50–69 years (38%; n=38), and over 70 years (1%; n=1). A marginal dropout rate of 5 percent was observed at the demographic classification section, while 1 percent of respondents elected not to disclose their age.

A transdisciplinary online expert workshop was convened on 2 November 2023, featuring n=18 purposively selected participants. The core objective was to collectively evaluate the socio-technical impacts of digitalisation within the forest-wood value chain, identify systemic innovation potentials, and co-design actionable operational recommendations. 

To capture a holistic view of the regulatory-operational interface, the panel blended high-level scientific expertise with field authority, drawing participants from academic institutions, private industry, public forestry administrations, and environmental non-governmental organisations.

The collaborative session followed a consensus-building expert workshop format with an iterative, two-stage co-creation and polling process around five core pillars: digitalisation, sustainability, legal issues, certification frameworks, and tracking/tracing capabilities. 

In the first round, guided group discussions were conducted to gather qualitative perspectives on technological entry barriers and governance configurations, with collaborative inputs captured in real time on a shared digital whiteboard and subsequently subjected to thematic matrix coding. 

In the second round, participants anonymously evaluated the specific socio-technical potential and feasibility of blockchain within each core pillar using digital polling software via a five-point Likert scale.

The quantitative workshop data were exported and evaluated using descriptive statistics, defining group consensus as an interquartile range of IQR ≤ 1.0. 

Divergent positions and polarised rankings were intentionally preserved in the final analysis to transparently reflect conflicting stakeholder interests and structural asymmetries across the supply chain. 

Ultimately, the workshop functioned as an integrative layer of analysis, serving to validate, challenge, and contextualise the empirical datasets derived from the prior research phases.

Multi-Dimensional Assessment of Blockchain Readiness

Expert consensus strongly characterised advanced digital maturity as a non-negotiable socio-technical prerequisite for the operational deployment of blockchain-supported traceability architectures. 

However, empirical triangulation between the qualitative interviews and quantitative survey metrics revealed an asymmetric distribution of digital readiness across the Central European forest-wood value chain, with analogue routines persisting in upstream forestry operations. 

This technological friction represents a critical operational constraint: the theoretical benefits of blockchain, such as tamper-evident logging event registration and immutable cross-party verification, are strictly contingent upon the primary availability of high-fidelity digital data and standardised, interoperable machine-to-machine interfaces.

Quantitative survey data regarding the perceived usefulness of blockchain reflected high polarisation among industry actors. 

Within the structured qualitative coding of open-ended survey text fields, the subcategories "blockchain provides a distinct operational advantage" (n=15) and "blockchain provides no discernible advantage" (n=14) received statistically equivalent frequencies, underscoring divergent paradigm expectations within the sector. 

Respondents rated the current level of digitalisation in their work environment as satisfactory, with digitalisation seen as a significant driver of efficiency. However, the active field application of digital data collection protocols remains variable, and pervasive deficits in baseline digital literacy across the workforce were identified as a major concern.

Respondents evaluated the contemporary sustainability performance of the Central European forestry sector across economic, environmental, and social dimensions using a standardised five-point Likert scale. 

The economic dimension was evaluated most favourably (mean 2.13), followed by the environmental (mean 2.22) and social dimensions (mean 2.40). 

Skill shortages and the extent to which digitalisation can address them received a more moderate evaluation (mean 2.92). Regarding forest ecosystem services, most respondents supported the idea of a platform spanning forest types. 

In ranking tasks, the top priorities were identified as water protection and provisioning, fresh air provisioning, and optimisation of forests as carbon sequestration sinks.

A substantial divergence was observed regarding the operational integration of carbon footprint tracking and formalised life cycle assessments. 

While 61 percent of the sample acknowledged the strategic macro-level significance of carbon metrics, 39 percent rejected their operational necessity. 

Qualitative interview records indicate that these reservations are primarily associated with the energy consumption profiles of continuous blockchain validation protocols and the potential administrative burden of auditing energy use across fragmented supply chain tiers.

Certification-related items produced mixed responses in the online survey. For the perceived relevance of certification for market access and product quality, 35 percent indicated an effect on market access, whereas a similar share indicated no effect on product quality, and 27 percent reported uncertainty. 

Respondents rated the economic importance of FSC and PEFC certification as moderately important. 

Views on blockchain-supported CO₂ certificate trading were sceptical: 43 percent saw no value, 33 percent saw potential, and 21 percent were unsure. Consistent with this, only 19 percent reported having suitable data for carbon marketing, while 75 percent expressed uncertainty or indicated insufficient data, pointing to a perceived data availability gap for carbon-related applications.

For seed traceability, responses were again divided: 35 percent did not see added value for their organisation, 33 percent were unsure, and 28 percent saw added value. As this survey sample was dominated by forestry and timber stakeholders, application-specific relevance may differ for other actor groups, which should be considered when interpreting these results.

Survey responses indicate uncertainty about whether legal regulation effectively promotes transparency in sustainable supply chains: 35 percent supported such regulation, 32 percent opposed it, and 32 percent were unsure. 

Respondents rated standards for timber purchasing as important, and confidentiality of business relationships and data protection were also rated as highly important.

When asked whether blockchain could improve transparency while supporting data protection, 51 percent indicated uncertainty, 34 percent indicated potential, and 11 percent considered it unsuitable. 

Similar patterns emerged for the suitability of blockchain for automated and legally secure contract processing: 60 percent were uncertain, 29 percent indicated suitability, and 11 percent indicated unsuitability. 

These distributions suggest that legal-technical use cases are perceived as plausible by a subset of respondents, but that uncertainty dominates, reflecting limited operational experience and unclear expectations regarding legal recognition of records and responsibilities.

Tracking and tracing are already used in practice, including within chain-of-custody certification schemes. Respondents rated the need for traceability along the timber supply chain as relatively high, with a wide dispersion across response categories. 

The perceived value of confidential traceability was similar, while interest in new traceability methods was lower. Respondents also expressed a need for a confidential and secure database along the supply chain.

When asked about transparency, almost half of respondents (49%) said they would welcome more transparency based on their work experience, while 23 percent did not, 25 percent were unsure, and 3 percent did not answer. 

Views on the economic benefits of tracking and tracing were similarly mixed: 31 percent expected financial gains, 32 percent did not, 33 percent were unsure, and 4 percent provided no response.

Regarding currently used tracking approaches, the most frequently reported were logical order with geodata (n=32), colour marks (n=31), QR codes (n=18), and photo-optical log stack measurement (n=17), with multiple responses allowed.

Fingerprint and DNA analysis were reported rarely or not at all. For preferred proof of origin for digital traceability, respondents most frequently selected the forest stand (n=28), followed by log stack (n=19), single log (n=8), and truck load (n=5).

Operational Feasibility, Digital Maturity & Socio-Technical Barriers (RQ1)

Regarding the practical field conditions of the forestry sector, the reluctance or willingness of stakeholders to adopt new digital tracking tools can be comprehensively explained by the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). 

The empirical insights reveal a significant divergence between perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. 

While the perceived usefulness of blockchain is exceptionally high due to mounting regulatory pressure, its perceived ease of use is severely constrained by the sector's traditional, analogue field operations and heterogeneous infrastructure. 

Stakeholders predominantly view blockchain as an additional cognitive and administrative burden rather than an operational optimisation tool.

This socio-technical friction is exacerbated by low digital maturity at the initial stages of the supply chain. Field operations in forestry regularly occur in remote areas lacking stable network connectivity, meaning rigid requirements for synchronous, real-time on-chain validation would inevitably result in severe logistical bottlenecks. 

Furthermore, the strategic value of blockchain in realistic forestry environments lies less in unconditional transparency and more in providing compliance-relevant documentation through selective, verifiable evidence without compromising commercial confidentiality.

Disaggregating these attitudes by stakeholder role and baseline digital maturity helps locate the likely early adopters. 

The observed polarisation was not uniform across the sample: actors at the industrial and institutional end of the value chain—sawmill and timber-processing companies, research and academic institutions, and certification or association bodies—combine comparatively high baseline digitalisation with the strongest regulatory exposure under the EUDR, and therefore represent the most probable first movers. 

By contrast, the large and fragmented population of small private forest owners, whose operations still rely heavily on analogue pen-and-paper workflows and who report the lowest digital maturity, constitute the principal adoption laggards. 

A rollout strategy should accordingly be tiered: pilots and interoperability standards can be seeded with digitally mature downstream and institutional actors, while smallholders are onboarded through cooperative data aggregators and user-centric, low-barrier mobile interfaces rather than through any requirement to operate ledger infrastructure directly.

Regulatory Compliance & Certification Interfaces

In the context of European legal frameworks, stakeholders primarily evaluate blockchain as a mechanism for ensuring data integrity under the strict mandates of the EUDR. Because the EUDR enforces maximum traceability down to geolocated harvest plots, it compels the industry to establish tamper-proof data chains. 

However, this study identifies the physical-digital "oracle problem" as the most critical technical hurdle to ensuring regulatory compliance. 

While blockchain mathematically guarantees data immutability after a transaction is recorded, it does not inherently protect against erroneous or fraudulent primary data captured at the forest plot level. This vulnerability reflects the classic "garbage in, garbage out" dilemma.

To mitigate the oracle problem, future blockchain implementations must be systematically linked with physical and biological verification methods, such as automated marking, ruggedised barcodes, RFID tagging, or genetic and laboratory analysis, to physically secure the link between the physical timber asset and its digital twin. 

Notably, these physical anchors are currently the least used technologies in surveyed practice: geodata-based logical ordering and colour marks dominate, whereas RFID, photo-optical measurement, fingerprinting, and DNA analysis remain marginal. 

This exposes a critical gap: the low-cost identifiers that stakeholders use establish logical order but do not cryptographically bind a physical asset to its digital record, whereas the anchoring technologies capable of resolving the oracle problem are precisely those with the lowest current adoption.

Furthermore, to avoid creating isolated digital silos, blockchain systems must establish seamless interoperability with existing third-party certification schemes and official regulatory registers. 

This requires the development of standardised application programming interfaces that communicate directly with the official EUDR information system, eliminating administrative duplication and ensuring cross-party verification without increasing technical fragmentation.

Socio-Economic Governance, Long-Term Lifecycles

Addressing the socio-economic and governance prerequisites for widespread adoption requires reconciling a fundamental temporal discrepancy: the conflict between biological rotation periods and digital lifecycles. In contrast to agriculture, where production cycles are measured in months, forestry operates across generations. 

While software standards, cryptographic algorithms, and hardware interfaces typically face obsolescence within a decade, forest data must remain accessible, immutable, and semantically readable for over half a century.

To cope with this timeline, a forest-anchored blockchain must fulfil dual functionality, operating simultaneously as an active transaction protocol and a generational long-term memory. 

A digital twin created at the seedling or planting stage must remain securely readable by downstream processing systems many decades into the future, requiring architecture designs that prioritise long-term interoperability over short-term functional diversity.

Moreover, long-term biological production is regularly disrupted by short-term ecological crises, such as windthrows or bark beetle infestations, which demand immediate processing of vast data volumes under adverse conditions. 

To maintain operational continuity during such calamities while ensuring digital sustainability, the deployment of a hybrid architecture approach is essential. 

Operational data from GIS or IoT systems should be kept off-chain, utilising the blockchain ledger selectively to notarise critical custody transfer points. 

This layout enables asynchronous, offline-first data logging that can synchronise with the ledger once field crises subside. 

This approach also prevents energy-intensive consensus mechanisms (e.g., Proof-of-Work) in favour of energy-efficient alternatives like Proof-of-Stake or private, permissioned architectures, ensuring the IT infrastructure does not counteract the ecological objectives of forest conservation.

This architecture favours a permissioned consortium topology rather than a public, open-membership network. 

Validating full nodes would be operated by a limited set of institutional stakeholders such as certification bodies (FSC and PEFC), forest administrations, industry associations, and larger sawmills, while forest owners and harvester crews interact through light clients and mobile applications that submit cryptographically signed transactions without hosting the ledger.

Only a minimal, tamper-evident layer should reside on-chain: hashes of custody-transfer events, notarised proofs, token state, and smart-contract logic, whereas high-volume operational data such as GIS geometries, IoT sensor streams, and raw harvester files remain off-chain, bound to the ledger by cryptographic reference.

Technical Integration

As a conceptual design proposal that illustrates how these hybrid architectures could operate under calamity conditions, the process logic of capacity ordering from the regulated gas energy sector can be transferred to wood logistics. 

This model explicitly distinguishes between fixed capacities (planned annual harvests) and variable capacities (unplanned calamity volumes), directly addressing the discrepancy between biological unpredictability and digital rigidity. 

In this scenario, the forest enterprise acts as the upstream resource supplier and the sawmill as the downstream consumer, mirroring the relationship between transmission and distribution system operators.

While this dynamic allocation model leverages smart contracts to automate logistical capacities, its real-world efficacy inherently depends on resolving the physical-digital oracle problem at the forest plot edge. 

If primary data collection is compromised, the downstream automated allocation logic fails. Consequently, this model must be strictly coupled with robust physical tracking mechanisms to secure the interface between physical timber assets and digital ledger tokens.

The technical implementation of this transfer scenario is operationalised across three core phases.

First, the smart contract acts as a neutral dispatcher, replicating the framework agreement's logic. 

Rather than a forester deciding manually which sawmill receives a particular stack of wood, the contract code executes this decision automatically based on predefined qualities, storing the entire order volume and acting as an autonomous machine that manages fulfilment status in a tamper-proof manner. 

Second, as soon as unforeseen wood volume becomes available due to windbreak, the wood is converted into a digital asset. 

The harvesting machine generates a standardised digital data record containing volume, GPS coordinates, and quality, which is transmitted to the blockchain and triggers the smart contract. 

Third, automated allocation occurs: if the quality matches open quota, the volume is assigned to the contract, activating the smart contract and notifying the sawmill immediately so logistics can be planned without waiting for manual approval. 

This process eliminates administrative costs that arise in analogue processes, especially when dealing with calamities, and enables a transition from a pull principle to an automated push principle in wood distribution.

Integrating Blockchain into Forestry

A substantial gap persists between the theoretical potential of blockchain technology and its pragmatic scalability within the forestry sector. 

To bridge this divide and mitigate the systemic risk of "garbage in, garbage out" inherent to distributed ledger technologies, future development must prioritise the cryptographic coupling of physical identification with digital tokenisation. 

Digital supply chain transparency alone cannot eliminate the physical oracle problem or prevent fraudulent declarations of timber provenance at the forest plot edge. Consequently, expanding toward a biologically and physically anchored blockchain infrastructure, utilising genetic tracing, RFID, or photo-optical log measurement, is imperative.

This multi-layered validation framework shifts the sector's perception of blockchain from a burdensome regulatory compliance cost into a strategic value driver. 

While contemporary timber markets offer limited price premiums for certified roundwood, blockchain provides the foundational architecture required to effectively monetise non-timber forest ecosystem services. 

By establishing tamper-proof, decentralised registries, blockchain can streamline entry into voluntary carbon sequestration markets and facilitate automated biodiversity conservation payments.

However, operationalising these systemic benefits requires coordinated regulatory action and technical standardisation. 

To prevent the proliferation of fragmented, proprietary digital silos, policy efforts must enforce open-access, standardised application programming interfaces and cross-regional data protocols. 

The long-term success of blockchain is highly contingent upon its formal integration into European legal frameworks, specifically regarding the cross-border validity of digital signatures and the statutory recognition of smart contracts for automated due diligence. 

Furthermore, to lower entry barriers for smallholder cooperatives, policymakers must introduce targeted socio-economic incentives, such as fiscal relief or streamlined audit pathways for regionally sourced, digitally verified timber assets.

Finally, this technological transition demands a profound cultural paradigm shift to overcome historical mistrust among supply chain echelons. 

Currently, low baseline digitalisation, typified by persistent pen-and-paper workflows and acute skilled labour shortages, represents severe structural obstacles. 

True operational resilience will not be achieved through the isolated deployment of software architectures, but rather through industry-wide educational initiatives. 

These programs must equip the forestry workforce with the digital literacy required to manage hybrid, decentralised ledger systems. Ultimately, a corporate culture must be fostered where secure data sharing is perceived as a collective operational asset rather than a competitive exposure.

Conclusions

The primary theoretical contribution of this study is the conceptualisation of a biologically anchored blockchain, which systematically addresses the fundamental physical-to-digital vulnerability in supply chain tracking. 

The empirical results demonstrate that digital transparency alone is insufficient to mitigate the physical-digital oracle problem or prevent fraudulent declarations of timber provenance. 

By cryptographically linking decentralised ledgers with physical and biological verification methods, the socio-technical integrity of a digital twin can be validated.

Blockchain technology is often discussed as a digital solution for timber traceability, particularly in the context of the EU Deforestation-Free Products Regulation (EUDR), which requires operators to demonstrate legality, deforestation-free production, and geolocation at forest parcel level. This study assesses where blockchain can realistically add value in timber supply chains under operational forestry conditions. By Lukas Stopfer, University of Freiburg, Benjamin Engler, Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development, and Thomas Purfürst, Technische Universität Dresden